Kumida ku kuzinhu
Food and kitchen
xarem · bindi · kalmam · mafáfa · mankára
Língua · Language
The African roots of Kriolu
“Nu ta papia sima nos avós.” · We speak as our grandfathers did.
Cape Verdean Kriolu draws most of its words from Portuguese — but its grammar, sound, and soul are West African. The Badiu variant of Santiago is the oldest and most African of all, carrying the deepest substrate of Mande, Wolof, and Temne.
~95%
of the lexicon is commonly described as Portuguese-derived; structure and usage require separate analysis.
70
probable African-origin words in the published list used for this lexicon.
3
principal source groupings discussed here: Manding, Wolof, and Temne/Upper Guinea.
How to read an etymology: a proposed source language shows a relationship worth exploring, not ownership by one modern ethnic group. Spellings vary by orthography and place, and uncertain or competing proposals remain visible in the lexicon.
Undi ki kes palavra ben di · The source languages
Three African tongues in one Kriolu
Linguists trace the African substrate of Santiago Kriolu to three main sources — each contributing in a different way.
Mandinka, Bambara, Maninka
41 words — ~60% of the total
The Manding varieties are the largest source by a wide margin, and they give verbs as well as nouns — a mark of deep contact rather than borrowing. Many words are attested across all three at once.
Wolof
11 words, and the grammar
Wolof's larger contribution is structural rather than lexical. It shaped Santiago Kriolu in its earliest formation, and the progressive construction still answers to the Wolof situative.
Temne, Fula, Biafada, Banhun, Manjaku
4 Temne, 4 across the rest
Few words and heavy ones. Tabanka and funku are Temne. The other Upper Guinea languages contribute a single word each — the yam, the peanut, the wild tomato — which is the whole of their recorded lexical trace.
Palavras di raís afrikanu · Words of African origin
The lexicon
Each word is attributed to a language and carries its citation. Quint counts the Mande languages together at roughly 60% of the substrate, but that is a figure about the substrate as a whole — it is not an etymology for any single word, so no entry here is labelled with a family.
Téra ku labuta
Land and cultivation
tenti · sibi · polom · funku · kotxi
Movimentu ku jestu
Movement and gesture
djobi · djongotu · nsoli · tchuputi · lombu
Orthography and variation
The list preserves the spelling used in the reference and records common alternatives in the note. A spelling difference is not automatically treated as a different word.
Pronunciation audio
Audio is research in progress. No recording will be published without the speaker’s consent, place/variant metadata, and a clear reuse licence.
66 of 66 words
| Kriolu | Source | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| djámba | Mandinka | A large locustFrom janbatutu, “little pigeon sp.” (Rougé 1988: 73–74).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| djobi | Mandinka | To look atFrom juubee (Rougé 1988: 75). Verdu reads it as a conflation with Portuguese olhar.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| djongotu | Mandinka | To squat downMandinka jokonto; compare Bambara ñɔ̀ngiri and Maninka nyonkin, “to kneel”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| dundu | Mandinka | A large black ant with a painful biteFrom dúntumalaŋ, “little black ant that bites”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| ferferi | Mandinka | To be content with littleFrom feefee, “to glean” (Rougé 1988: 61).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| fus | Mandinka | A silent fartFrom fuusi, “to fart”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| futi-futi | Mandinka | To thrash about, to throw oneself aboutFrom futifiti.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| kankaram | Mandinka | A bed base made of giant reedFrom kankaraŋ, “framework, roof” (Rougé 1988: 81).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| kotxi | Mandinka | To pound grain in a mortar to remove the husksFrom kócci (Rougé 1988: 85). Also written kotchi.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| kundindem | Mandinka | The coccyxFrom kóo “back” + dindiŋ “small” (Rougé 1988: 90).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| manduku | Mandinka | A stickFrom dáko.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| mesés | Mandinka | A poultry louseFrom mèsesi.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| ndjutu | Mandinka | To underestimate; to pay little attention toFrom jutu (Rougé 1988: 76).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| nsoli | Mandinka | To fillFrom sóli.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| ñuli | Mandinka | To look daggers at someoneFrom ŋúlu, ŋudunda.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| sibi | Mandinka | The ronier palmFrom sèbe (Rougé 1988: 134); Maninka sebe, “kind of palm tree”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| soti | Mandinka | To insert, to embed, to houseMandinka sóoti, “to insert into a tight space”; Bambara syɔri, sɔɔri.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| xarem | Mandinka | A traditional dish of pounded maizeMandinka sèreŋ, “a large-grained couscous”; Bambara sɛ̀ri, “gruel of pounded cereals”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| bága-bága | Bambara | A large red antFrom bagabaga, “termite”; Mandinka baabaa, “termite” (Rougé 1988: 29).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| bombu | Bambara | To carry someone on one's backFrom bàmu, pronounced bambu in Bamako.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| djambu | Bambara | To mourn a dead person; to pity a sick oneFrom jàmu, “to praise, to sing someone's praises”. Recorded at Pico Leão and Salineiro.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| kodé | Bambara | The youngest child, the last-bornFrom kɔrdɛ́n, “child carried on its mother's back”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| txuki | Bambara | To stick into, to pierce, to wound, to drive inFrom ncɔki-ncɔki, “to prick, to sting”. Also written tchuki.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| bimbirim | Maninka | A grass, probably milletFrom binbiri, “millet”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| boli | Manding | A gourdBambara bɔ̀lɛn; Maninka bólin, “gourd with a neck”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| bur-bur | Manding | Coming apart, non-sticky, powderyManinka boroboro, “quicksand”; Maninka and Mandinka buguri, “sand, dust, ashes”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| busu | Manding | To graze the skin, to peel offBambara boso, “to flay”; Maninka bósó, “to skin”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| dabiu | Manding | A bedbugBambara dàbi (Rougé 1988: 47); Maninka dabi; Mandinka daba.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| digigi | Manding | To shake, to be shakyManinka dyigidyigi; Mandinka gidyigidyi.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| disdangu | Manding | To refuse to answer, to sulk atPortuguese des- “un-” with Maninka dankun and Mandinka danku, “to answer” (Rougé 1988: 50).DualQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| djendji | Manding | To bend over, to lean, to inclineBambara jɛ̃ngɛn; Maninka dyenke; Mandinka jenke (Rougé 1988: 69).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| djongu | Manding | To dozeBambara jĩŋgɔn (Rougé 1988: 76); Maninka dyinkon; Mandinka jinkoo.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| fépu | Manding | Completely, totallyBambara fɛwu, “entirely”; Maninka féu; Mandinka fétw. Verdu instead reads it against Wolof -épp.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| kalmam | Manding | A ladle made from a coconut or calabashAlso karmam. Maninka kalama, Mandinka kalamaa, “wooden spoon” (Rougé 1988: 79).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| konku | Manding | To knock, as at a doorBambara kɔnkɔn; Maninka konkon.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| lóti-lóti | Manding | Soft, flaccid, flabby — of an overripe bananaBambara lɔ̀ti, lɔ̀tɛ, “very soft, greasy, pasty”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| menhi-menhi | Manding | Flickering or flashing; blurred visionBambara mɛne-mɛne, “to twinkle”; Maninka munye-munye.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| mondu | Manding | To curl up, to crouch, to shrivelBambara mɔntɔn, “to crouch, to crumple”; Maninka mondomondo.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| monhongi | Manding | To crumple, to rumpleBambara mɔ̃ñɔ̃kɔ, “to crush, to pulverise”; Maninka mononki.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| nhemi | Manding | To chew, to nibble atBambara and Mandinka ñíimi (Rougé 1988: 110); Maninka nyimin.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| siré | Manding | Chewing tobaccoBambara síra, “tobacco”; Mandinka síra, “snuff”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| tenti | Manding | To winnow grainMoving the square basket vertically so the chaff blows away. Bambara tɛntɛn, “to winnow, to sift”; Maninka tenten.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| bindi | Wolof | An earthenware pot with a perforated base, for making couscousFrom bi + (y)inde (Rougé 1988: 37).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| djagasi | Wolof | To mix — of food or drinkFrom jaxase, “to mix” (Rougé 1988: 73).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| djáki | Wolof | A bull calf, a young bullFrom yëkk, “bull”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| feti-feti | Wolof | To rub linenFrom fete.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| lokoti | Wolof | To scrape the last of a dish out with a fingerFrom lóqati, “to extract, to draw out of a hole”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| lombu | Wolof | To wrap or muffle oneself upFrom làmboo, “to wrap up, to put clothes on oneself”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| mofé | Wolof | Fat — recorded in the Tarrafal areaFrom maafe, “a dish in peanut sauce” (Rougé 1988: 97).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| moku | Wolof | DrunkWolof mokk, “to be pounded”, with Portuguese mouco. The same word carries the same sense in Guinea-Bissau and Casamance Creole.DualVerdu et al. (2017), Table S1 |
| ñanhi | Wolof | To gnawFrom ŋaaɲi, “to bite”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| nhapáti | Wolof | The act of biting a piece off somethingFrom ŋapat, “to take a mouthful” (Rougé 1988: 110).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| ori | Wolof | Wari — the board game also known as awéléAlso oru. From wure. Quint's Anexo 2 files it under a shared Mandinka–Wolof etymology.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| tchuputi | Wolof | To pinch; to pick at with the beakAfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| tubábu | Wolof | A coarse or rude personFrom tubab, the name for Europeans in Senegal and across West Africa — itself from Arabic tubaba, “doctors”.AfricanQuint (2008), Anexo 2 |
| unhi | Wolof | To bare one's backside at someone, to shame themAlso unhe.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| funku | Temne | The traditional straw hut of SantiagoFrom an-funk, “silo”, and an-punkan, “roofed structure”.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| iram | Temne | Someone affected by dropsy, with a swollen headFrom an-iran, “spirit”.AfricanQuint (2008), Anexo 2 |
| polom | Temne | The kapok tree — the poilãoFrom an-polon.AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| tabánka | Temne | A traditional carnival, and the mutual-aid society behind itFrom ka-banka, “fortification, palisade” (Rougé 1988: 139).AfricanQuint (2012), Appendix 1 |
| banbudu | Manjaku | Carried on one's backFrom banbu, “to carry a child on one's back” — shared across Manding, Manjaku and Mankañ.AfricanVerdu et al. (2017), Table S1 |
| kamáti | Manjaku | Restlessness; also the wild tomatoManjaku-Mankanha ka-mati, itself from Portuguese tomate.AfricanQuint (2008), Anexo 2 |
| djurdjur | Fula | Hasty, clumsyFrom jurjurta, “dishevelled”.AfricanQuint (2008), Anexo 2 |
| mafáfa | Biafada | A yam — Colocasia esculentaFrom a-fafa, plural ma-fafa (Rougé 1988: 99).AfricanQuint (2008), Anexo 2 |
| mankára | Banhun | PeanutFrom gu-jankari, plural ba-jankari (Rougé 1988: 100).AfricanQuint (2008), Anexo 2 |
| bidjogó | Bijagó | A large, fleshy variety of mangoFrom the name of the Bijagós people of Guinea-Bissau.AfricanQuint (2008), Anexo 2 |
African traces directly back to an African language. Dual marks a conflation of an African and a European form — both are doing work in the word. The distinction is the scholarship’s, not ours.
Gramátika · The grammar carries it
The deepest African imprint isn’t vocabulary — it’s structure
Wolof speakers laid the grammatical foundation of Santiago Kriolu in the 1400s–1500s; later arrivals had to conform to it. The way Badiu marks an action in progress — a pair of verbal particles — survives directly from the Wolof situative.
That is why Kriolu feels African even when the words look Portuguese: the bones are Senegambian.
Progressive · from Wolof
N sa ta papia
“I am speaking” — in Santiago the progressive joins sa (or sta) with ta before the verb, written separately and without a hyphen. The construction carries the Wolof situative.
Reduplication · West-African pattern
mansu-mansu — gently, slowly
A repeated word shifts or intensifies the sense, and takes a hyphen when it does — a hallmark of the substrate.
Fontis · Sources & method
- †Nicolas Quint, “African words and calques in Capeverdean Creole (Santiago variety)”, in Angela Bartens & Philip Baker (eds), Black through White (2012) — Appendix 1 lists 70 words of probable African origin by source language. It is the source of almost every entry above.
- †Nicolas Quint, Africanismos na língua caboverdiana (variante de Santiago) (2008) — Anexo 2 gives the per-language lists, including the Upper Guinea and Bantu sections not covered by Appendix 1.
- †Jean-Louis Rougé, Dictionnaire étymologique des créoles portugais d'Afrique (2004); and Rougé (1988) — The etymon for many individual entries; page references are given in the notes.
- †Verdu et al., Parallel Trajectories of Genetic and Linguistic Admixture in a Genetically Admixed Creole Population (2017) — Table S1 identifies 29 African-origin roots and morphemes among 212 lexical items — mostly grammatical, which is why little of it appears above.
- †Jürgen Lang, A Wolof trace in the verbal system of the Portuguese Creole of Santiago Island (2011)
- †Bart Jacobs, Upper Guinea Creole: evidence in favor of a Santiago birth (2010)
- †Marlyse Baptista & Ousmane Cissé, Definiteness and genericity in Cabo Verdean Creole and Mandinka (2023)
This is an active field. The lists above will grow and be corrected as research continues; community additions are welcome.